The process of 4D printing is essentially the same - it utilizes the same 3D printers, and the computer runs the same program to deposit material in successive layers until a 3D structure is formed.

There is a big difference between building one of something and building, say, 100 of the same item. It isn’t surprising, then, that 3D printing in bulk differs from printing one object at a time.

A 4D printed object is like a 3D printed object ... The TPU required flat printing, so various pieces have to be rotatable so they can be placed in their final orientation after printing.

The emerging technology of 4D printing – where 3D-printed material changes shape over time – means we may be able to build things that can adapt to our use or the environment around them ...