All systems can be understood using an input-process-output (IPO) model, and the system we call “innovation” is no exception. This model is likely familiar to you from information technology ...

This is a preview. Log in through your library . Abstract The probability density of input-output multipliers under the assumption of normality of the input coefficients is estimated. The moments and ...

For prompts up to 200,000 tokens, Gemini 2.5 Pro costs $1.25 per million input tokens (roughly 750,000 words, longer than the entire “Lord of The Rings” series) and $10 per million output tokens.

This paper examines three hypotheses central to the Leontief economic input-output model: (1) constant dollar coefficients are more stable than current dollar coefficients; (2) the intermediate ...

Even more striking, the o3-mini model costs just $1.10 per million input tokens and $4.40 per million output tokens, making it cheaper than even GPT-4o while providing much stronger performance on ...